This video provides information on the scientific method that will assist you in completing your S
10 Sustaining Our Futures
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• Describe and compare two past environmental movements in the United States. • Identify modern tools and resources for solving the world’s environmental problems. • Describe how environmentalists such as Ray C. Anderson, Jaime Lerner, and Wangari Maathai
shaped modern environmental efforts. • Describe environmental actions taken by citizens in Meadville, Pennsylvania.
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Section 10.1 Past Environmental Movements
Over the past nine chapters, you have seen that our environmental challenges are numerous and daunting. You have learned about the sixth mass extinction and the accelerating loss of our planet’s biodiversity. You have also read about the exploitation of the Earth’s resources and the production of new forms of hazardous waste, and you have explored perhaps the greatest threat that humanity has ever faced in climate change. These challenges dispropor- tionately impact populations that have contributed very little to our global problems and, together, threaten the lives of hundreds of millions of global citizens.
All of this can seem overwhelming, but hopefully you also feel compassion for the world around you and motivation to make things better. This final chapter will focus on harnessing these feelings along with your creativity to develop long-term solutions and plot a course forward. We will begin by discussing past environmental movements so that we can identify strategies that worked well (or did not work well) in the past. Then we will highlight a variety of approaches that could be used to build the next environmental movement, one that might very well save the planet and preserve future generations.
10.1 Past Environmental Movements
The United States has contributed to its fair share of environmental problems, but the coun- try has also seen some remarkable environmental successes. The American conservation movement and the modern environmental movement were two periods of U.S. history that saw the development of multiple groundbreaking environmental reforms. These two periods influenced sustainable development and environmentalism all over the world and continue to shape local environments today. Examining the successes and failures of these two move- ments will help us identify useful strategies going forward.
The American Conservation Movement The American conservation movement (or simply the conservation movement) describes a period from roughly 1850 to 1920 when U.S. citizens responded to environmental challenges that arose out of the Industrial Revolution. In the 19th century new, mechanized industrial processes stimulated economic growth, and the populations of American cities swelled as workers flocked to urban areas for manufacturing jobs. Not surprisingly, the growing cities and expanding economies began to take a toll on surrounding environments. Industry polluted air, water, and soil, and new levels of consumption overtaxed environmental systems. During this period, much of the northeastern United States was logged to meet lumber demands and to free up space for food production. Sanitation and health also became major issues as trash and human excrement polluted drinking water and overwhelmed city infrastructures.
These conditions caused Americans to begin experiencing nature in new ways. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote his classic essay “Nature” in 1836, which presents nature (in contrast to soci- ety) as a place of healing and spiritual growth. In 1854 Henry David Thoreau wrote his famous book Walden, which describes his time living in a secluded cabin on Walden Pond in Massa- chusetts. The book warns about the dangers of a rapidly modernizing world and promotes the use of natural spaces to cultivate self-reflection and self-reliance. Emerson and Thoreau were
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Section 10.1 Past Environmental Movements
just the beginning of a wave of writers and phi- losophers called transcendentalists, who believed in the goodness of nature and warned against the forces of society that corrupt.
The transcendentalists did more than just inspire environmental enthusiasts; their ideas helped mobilize a generation of American citizens around the idea of environmental conservation. In one famous example, transcendentalist writer John Muir convinced President Theodore Roosevelt to expand Yosemite National Park during a 3-day camping trip. The two developed a lasting friend- ship, and Roosevelt would go on to protect approx- imately 93 million hectares (230 million acres) of public lands (about 11% of the United States) and solidify his status as one of the most environmen- tally conscious presidents in U.S. history.
While transcendentalist artists were busy gen- erating a new narrative about nature, another unlikely environmental champion was gaining momentum in the private sector. By the late 19th century, newly built railroads had opened up huge
swaths of the western United States to a growing class of wealthy Americans who wanted to explore the nation’s natural wonders. There was money to be made in the budding tourism industry, so railroad companies like the Northern Pacific Railway, Southern Pacific Railroad, and the Great Northern Railway began promoting national parks and other tourist destina- tions. Several railroad companies contributed directly to the creation of national parks and other protected areas by lobbying the U.S. government. Without railroads, national treasures like Yellowstone, Mount Rainier, Crater Lake, Kings Canyon, Sequoia, Yosemite, and Glacier National Park might never have come into being.
In addition to designating protected areas, the federal government also created a number of institutions to manage U.S. land and resources in socially and environmentally responsible ways. These efforts to conserve wild places and protect natural resources constituted the American conservation movement, and together they ensured that Americans had access to food, water, and nature for generations to come.
The Modern Environmental Movement The modern environmental movement refers to a series of environmental reforms that occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. However, its origins can be traced back to a period of rapid economic growth after World War II. During this period, high levels of employment and new technologies dramatically increased consumption. The development of DDT meant that U.S. farmers could produce more food. Scientists harnessed the power of the atom for nuclear power plants and provided the country with affordable and reliable electricity. As the economy expanded and citizens achieved new levels of wealth, a growing middle class
Underwood Photo Archives/SuperStock Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir on Glacier Point in Yosemite during the 1903 camping trip that prompted Roosevelt to sign legislation expanding Yosemite National Park.
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began to purchase cars in large numbers. By the mid-1950s the United States began building a national interstate system that allowed people to trade and move more easily. The economy grew rapidly, and the fact that this followed the Great Depression helped create a culture that celebrated high levels of consumption.
The prosperity that accompanied the postwar boom improved the lives of many, but it also came with several new environmental challenges. In 1953 hundreds of people were killed by a 6-day period of intense smog in New York City. A similar event happened in 1963 and then again in 1966. In Los Angeles large amounts of industrial waste began washing up on local beaches, and sewage polluted the Los Angeles River. Then in 1969 an offshore oil drilling platform near Santa Barbara exploded and covered over 56 kilometers (35 miles) of Califor- nia coastline in oil. All over the country, unprecedented levels of energy consumption, waste production, and industrial activity were causing overwhelming environmental challenges.
Once again, attitudes about nature began to change in response to new environmental chal- lenges. One figure who gathered a large following during this period was Aldo Leopold, whose “land ethic” philosophy emphasized the well-being of environmental systems and ecosys- tems rather than the individual species they contain. Leopold’s most important work, A Sand County Almanac, was written in 1949, and its ideas would inspire a generation of environ- mental activists to bring about another environmental movement. One of these activists was Rachel Carson, who wrote Silent Spring in 1962 and called national attention to the negative impacts of DDT on birds of prey. In 1968 Paul and Anne Ehrlich wrote The Population Bomb, which described global population growth and warned against ecological collapse.
That same year, the crew of the Apollo 8 returned with a picture that was used by environmentalists to ignite an environmen- tal revolution. The famous Earthrise image depicts the small, ocean- and cloud-covered Earth rising above the horizon of the moon. For the first time, Americans could see that our vulnerable planet was surrounded by a lifeless expanse of space, and there was no place to go if we destroyed our home.
On April 22, 1970, less than 16 months after the American public first saw Earthrise, politicians, educators, and environmental activists organized the first Earth Day. The event rallied roughly 20 million Ameri- can citizens around peaceful demonstra- tions for the environment. From there the momentum continued to build. A group called the League of Conservation Voters identified 12 members of Congress with poor environmental voting records that the league labeled “the Dirty Dozen.” Organizing efforts contributed to the defeat of 7 of the 12 incumbent candidates during the 1970 election. These events sent a strong message to national leaders, and the grassroots movement begin manifesting in real legislative accomplishments.
Johnson Space Center/NASA The famous 1968 Earthrise photo taken by the Apollo 8 mission.
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Section 10.1 Past Environmental Movements
The political will to develop new environmental legislation began to wane in the 1980s, but the victories of the modern environmental movement would have far-reaching impacts. The movement helped clean up air and water all over the country, and it allowed species like the bald eagle, American bison, and several others to recover from the brink of extinction. The regulations that were developed during this period still provide some of the most important environmental protections in this country.
Common Themes If we look closely at these two environmental movements, we can find parallels that provide useful lessons about effective environmental change. For one thing, both movements devel- oped in response to big changes in society. The American conservation movement was a reac- tion to rapid growth and industrialization, whereas the modern environmental movement was prompted by the postwar economic boom. In both examples, problems developed due to population growth and increased consumption. We can see that these two factors represent important root causes that must be considered in future environmental efforts.
The American conservation movement and the modern environmental movement also responded to immediate threats to human well-being. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, conservation efforts became necessary because Americans were running out of wild spaces. In the 1970s new protections addressed conditions that were polluting air and water and destroying natural landscapes. Both environmental movements demonstrate that popula- tions take action when they are directly impacted by environmental problems.
Finally, both environmental movements were able to garner broad support from different demographics. Factory workers, artists, entrepreneurs, and politicians were all instrumental to the successes of the American conservation movement, and the modern environmental movement had support from politicians on both sides of the political aisle. History teaches us that big changes are possible when diverse groups are able to find common ground.
Wicked Problems The American conservation movement and the modern environmental movement brought about much change, but they certainly did not solve all of our environmental problems. Envi- ronmentalists in the 1970s were already concerned about overfishing, deforestation, and industrial agriculture, yet these problems only got worse over time. Meanwhile, more than a few of the areas that were protected by earlier conservation efforts are currently threatened by development. Some of these challenges may have been too complex for past environmental movements to address. The science of climate change, for example, was challenged through- out much of the 20th century. Even now, researchers struggle to specify exactly when, where, and how the impacts of climate change will unfold. This has made it difficult for communities to adapt and respond to the threat in a timely manner.
Solutions to many global problems have eluded environmentalists for decades. The modern environmental movement relied on local regulations, but problems like overfishing extend beyond national borders. Coordinated international efforts are needed in addition to local reforms to approach many of our most urgent environmental challenges.
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Section 10.2 Reasons for Optimism
Finally, some environmental problems are difficult to solve because they are remote and have consequences that are abstract and/or decoupled from our everyday lives. One example of this is electronic waste that is shipped to less affluent nations in order to shift the environ- mental burden away from wealthier nations. Past environmental movements were good at fixing problems that harmed Americans, but several environmental challenges that impact other regions have managed to persist and even worsen over time.
When modern challenges are complex, global, and/or remote, we often refer to them as wicked problems. Problems like these require solutions that go beyond those implemented by the American conservation movement and the modern environmental movement. In the following sections of this chapter, we will discuss what these new approaches might entail.
10.2 Reasons for Optimism
The bad news is that wicked environmental problems have only gotten bigger and more com- plicated over time. The good news is that our ability to problem solve has also changed over the past several decades. Before we address the next environmental movement, it will be helpful to take stock of the new tools and resources that are available to combat our environ- mental challenges. Luckily, we have several good reasons to be optimistic.
More Resources News outlets may give the impression that our global economic systems are in shambles, but in some ways, the U.S. and global economies are doing quite well (see Apply Your Knowl- edge: How Do GWP and GDP Compare?). With more resources at their disposal, some nations are already making big investments in more sustainable infrastructure. China has built over 25,000 kilometers (15,530 miles) of high-speed train networks that save energy and support economic growth (Keju, 2019). Denmark has implemented new sewage systems that protect water resources and preserve local ecosystems. Copenhagen, for example, is a city the size of Baltimore that is surrounded by canals and an ocean harbor, and its state-of-the-art overflow barriers, storage systems, and monitoring equipment ensure that it has some of the cleanest swimming and drinking water in the world (Raidt, 2015).
Some regions are investing their resources in big conservation efforts. In 2012 Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe combined forces to create the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (n.d.), which is larger than Germany and Austria combined. In 2017 the Cook Islands created the largest marine protected area in the world by convert- ing its exclusive economic zone in the Marae Moana Marine Park (United Nations, n.d.a). That same year, more than 24 countries (including the United States) committed to protecting the Ross Sea, a marine habitat off the coast of Antarctica that is twice the size of Texas (Howard, 2016). More recently, Colombia expanded its Serranía de Chiribiquete national park to create the world’s largest protected tropical rain forest (World Wildlife Fund, 2018).
Individuals are also using their wealth to benefit the environment. Organic food sales in the United States increased by a factor of 15 from 1997 to 2017, and the industry is now worth
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Section 10.2 Reasons for Optimism
more than $45 billion per year (Organic Trade Association, n.d.). Because food is sourced globally, the organic movement is changing the ways that food is produced in farms all over the world. In Germany, more than 120 million citizens have purchased residential solar panel systems, and in the process they have helped grow the solar industry so that it can penetrate new markets around the world (Hockenos, 2018). Globally, more drivers are choosing to pur- chase electric vehicles (EVs) that reduce lifetime fuel costs and greenhouse gas emissions. The number of electric vehicles on the road increased by 40% in 2018, and some experts pre- dict that EVs could represent 70% of all vehicle sales by the year 2030 (International Energy Agency, 2019). If these predictions come to fruition, it will not be long before EVs transform our transportation systems.
Apply Your Knowledge: How Do GWP and GDP Compare?
Consider all the goods and services in our global economy over time. These can be material goods like food, buildings, and vehicles, as well as services like entertainment, transportation, and health care. If we were to add up the value of all these things over the course of a year, it would provide a measure of the wealth and resources that we collectively have at our disposal. Economists call this measure the gross world product (GWP), and its values are plotted over time in Figure 10.1. Based on this figure how do current economic conditions compare to those in the past? What does this say about our ability to address environmental problems?
Figure 10.1: Gross world product, 1960–1917
GWP is the value of products and services produced globally during a specified year.
Source: Data from “GDP (Current US$),” by World Bank, 2019 (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.mktp.cd).
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Apply Your Knowledge: How Do GWP and GDP Compare? (continued)
The same measurement for an individual nation is called the gross domestic product (GDP), and if we look at the U.S. GDP data in Figure 10.2, we see a very similar trend.
Both the United States and the world are becoming wealthier over time. Moreover, growth appears to be accelerating with time. Based on GDP, the United States in 2019 was the wealthiest nation ever to exist. This is almost scary when you think about what we have accomplished in the past. The United States has built highway systems, traveled to the moon, and unleashed a personal computing revolution while working with far fewer resources than we have available today. Similarly, the international community has rebuilt nations devastated by war, lifted more than 1 billion people out of extreme poverty, and built a $10 billion particle collider to explore the physical nature of the universe. Imagine what we could accomplish if a significant fraction of our resources were committed to solving environmental challenges.
All of this is not to say that we are without serious economic challenges. Income inequality has also been on the rise since the 1970s, and many are concerned that only a relative few are receiving the full benefits of the nation’s economic growth. This also means that our wealth and resources are not always controlled by those who will use it for public good. Despite these concerns, the data suggest that more people around the world have more resources than ever before. When harnessed effectively, governments like the United States are able to build new systems for a more sustainable future.
Figure 10.2: U.S. gross domestic product, 1960–2018
A nation’s GDP is the value of products and services it produces over the course of a year.
Source: Data from “GDP (Current US$),” by World Bank, 2019 (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP. CD?locations=US).
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More Knowledge Resources are important, but environmental progress requires creative solutions and new ideas. Fortunately, we also know more about our environmental problems than we have in the past, and much of this knowledge is actionable.
Mimicking Nature Researchers all over the world are develop- ing better understandings of environmen- tal systems, and some of them are putting this information into action. In one famous example, biologists were able to restore flora and fauna in Yellowstone National Park by reintroducing wolves as a keystone species. The first gray wolves were reintro- duced in 1995, and it was not long before they caused elk to avoid valleys and gorges where they could be easily hunted. With less grazing pressure from elk, vegetation recovered, forests regenerated, and forest species returned.
More recently, the Nature Conservancy teamed up with California farmers to develop rice fields that doubled as bird habitats. Researchers and farmers flooded rice paddies at oppor- tune times to provide rest stops for migratory birds. The approach resulted in the largest shorebird densities ever to be reported in California’s Central Valley. Kelp farmers in New England are also developing food sources with serious environmental benefits. They are growing coastal kelp forests that provide seaweed for human consumption while also seques- tering carbon from the atmosphere and providing habitat for fish nurseries. Researchers at Mote Tropical Research Laboratory in Florida have discovered how to grow coral in a lab over 100 times faster than it grows in nature. They are now using this approach to rebuild coral reefs in the United States and Mexico.
Manuel Valdes/Associated Press Scientists hold kelp that was grown on a buoy line in Washington State’s Hood Canal. Kelp farms like this one are being used to sequester carbon from the atmosphere.
Learn More: Wolves in Yellowstone
A history of wolves in Yellowstone National park can be found here.
• https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/wolf-restoration.htm
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https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/wolf-restoration.htm
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Section 10.2 Reasons for Optimism
Recognizing Economic Value We are also developing a better understanding of the human side of our environmental prob- lems. Economists have been working hard to find better ways of considering the environ- ment in our economic systems. In one study, researchers estimated that ecosystem services like nutrient cycling, disease control, pollination, and cultural contributions are worth almost $150 trillion per year globally (Costanza et al., 2014). They also estimated that we are losing up to $20 trillion per year as a result of environmental degradation (Costanza et al., 2014).
Some argue that these calculations risk undervaluing nature and undermining environmen- tal efforts, but there is also evidence to suggest that economic arguments like these can be helpful to environmental causes. Today, maple syrup operations in Maine are not only sell- ing syrup, they are also selling the ability to sequester carbon from the atmosphere in the form of carbon credits. During Hurricane Sandy in 2012, coastal wetlands slowed the storm’s progression and absorbed huge amounts of water. Researchers estimate that these habitats prevented $625 million worth of property damage in the process, and now states like Loui- siana are investing in big coastal restoration projects (Akpan, 2017). Major U.S. cities like Philadelphia, Denver, and Seattle are also incorporating sustainability goals into their city planning efforts. Maintaining a healthy environment is one of the best ways to promote long- term economic growth.
Changing Behaviors New research is also helping humans act in more environmentally friendly ways. Behavioral scientists have developed successful strategies for encouraging better energy use, waste dis- posal, and transportation habits. The software company Opower has carried out large social experiments around environmental messaging and found that electric utility customers con- serve energy when they are allowed to compare their energy use to that of their neighbors (Allcott, 2011). The company is now working with utilities all over the nation to conserve energy resources.
Using New Technologies New technologies are also changing the ways in which we live and interact with the environ- ment. Genetically modified, blight-resistant chestnut trees developed at the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry are helping restore Appalachian ecosystems. Similarly, insect-resistant cotton varieties are now allowing farmers to use fewer insecticides, and drought-resistant corn varieties might help millions cope with climate change. Researchers in Iceland have engineered a way to turn atmospheric carbon into rock by safely sequestering it in geologic formations. Renewable energy technologies like wind and solar have also improved dramatically over the past 20 years. In a growing number of locations internationally and domestically, electricity from renewable sources is now more economical than coal and natural gas.
These examples are just a small sampling of the advancements that have occurred over the past few decades, and there is good reason to believe that this is just the beginning. New knowledge is being discovered every day. New technologies are being created faster than ever before, and the rate of adopting these technologies is increasing as well. Our ability to solve problems is increasing at an astonishing rate.
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Section 10.2 Reasons for Optimism
More Involvement Perhaps the most important tool for the next environmental movement is public engage- ment. Just consider a few recent demonstra- tions calling for action on climate change. The People’s Climate Marches that took place in 2014 and 2017 drew hundreds of thousands of demonstrators and were sup- ported by satellite events all over the world. According to some estimates, the March for Science drew close to 1 million participants in 2017. All three events are among the most well-attended demonstrations of any kind in U.S. history. More recently, several lawsuits have been filed against oil compa- nies and governments in Canada, the Neth- erlands, Ireland, and the United States for not taking action on climate change. In 2019 over 1 million students around the world left school to participate in the Global Climate Strike for Future, and parts of London were occu- pied by Extinction Rebellion protesters calling for carbon neutrality in the United Kingdom.
Environmental research is another area where public involvement is growing. Citizen science is scientific research that pairs volunteers with professional scientists, and public participa- tion has exploded over the past decade. These research programs often rely on volunteers to collect or analyze data, and by organizing projects around mobile electronics and online tools, researchers have been able to develop global collaborations with thousands of participants. To learn more about what these projects entail and to find a project that interests you, read Close to Home: Engaging in Citizen Science.
Citizen science projects can be fun and engaging, but they also allow researchers to carry out more ambitious research. Volunteer labor allows projects to study larger areas for lon- ger periods of time and collect and analyze huge amounts of data (Dickinson, Zuckerberg, & Bonter, 2010). Not surprisingly, the approach is producing lots of new findings. The number of publications resulting from citizen science efforts has increased exponentially since the early 2000s (Baker, 2016). According to researchers at the University of Washington, more than 1 million citizen scientists participate in hundreds of research projects related to bio- diversity alone, and the value of these contributions are worth billions of dollars annually (Baker, 2016).
Citizen science programs also help create a more informed public. Volunteer participation can increase awareness of environmental systems and challenges and develop scientific reason- ing skills (Jordan, Gray, Howe, Brooks, & Ehrenfeld, 2011). Research has also shown that some forms of citizen science increase participation in public policy–making opportunities (Weber, 2000).
One of the most exciting developments of the citizen science boom is that these projects are developing a variety of new approaches to collaborative problem solving. Citizen science projects are coordinating diverse groups of people to carry out complex research tasks, and similar strategies might one day be used for implementing solutions to global problems.
Alex Milan Tracy/Sipa USA via AP Thousands of protestors gathered in Portland, Oregon, for the 2017 March for Science. Similar marches took place all over the nation that day.
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Section 10.2 Reasons for Optimism
Close to Home: Engaging in Citizen Science
If participating in conservation efforts and environmental research sounds interesting to you, then you are in luck. The popularity of citizen science programs is growing rapidly, and there are a variety of ways to become involved. Many citizen science programs use sightings of plants and animals to better understand migrations and changes to populations over time. The Mass Audubon Firefly Watch program, for example, uses backyard observations of fireflies to try to understand how these creatures are impacted by a changing climate. The Monterey Bay Aquarium has set up a similar Jellywatch program for jellyfish, and Journey North uses monarch butterfly sightings to better understand butterfly migrations. The Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology and the National Audubon Society support several citizen science programs for bird-watchers. Today you can find programs for just about any invasive or threatened species with just a quick Internet search.
If identifying wildlife is not your passion, there are several other ways to collect citizen science data. The EPA is helping residents of industrial areas collect air samples, and the Microplastics Project is helping citizens collect water samples to assess microplastic pollution. Other programs try to harness personal hobbies as data-collection tools. RinkWatch is a program that tracks the impacts of climate change through observations of outdoor ice rinks, and Smartfin is a program that allows surfers to monitor ocean health by attaching sensors to their surfboards.
Some citizen science programs rely on volunteers to analyze data. The Bat Detective program uses citizen scientists to interpret audio recordings of bats in the wild. The Satellites Over Seals program asks volunteers to identify crabeater seals in satellite images of the Southern Ocean. Similarly, the Cyclone Center uses citizens to analyze online images of weather systems. The Smithsonian Institution’s Transcription Center lets citizen scientists transcribe historical, handwritten field notes and research data so that they can be more easily incorporated into modern research.
These examples demonstrate a wide range of citizen science projects that are available to the public, but even these only begin to scratch the surface. To help navigate the expanding world of citizen science, several new resources are now helping match volunteers with active research projects. Citizenscience.gov is an online database that contains citizen science projects initiated by government agencies like the EPA, the NOAA, and the National Parks Service. SciStarter is another project hub that developed out of a project at Arizona State University. Both resources allow you to search by activities, topics, and locations to find the right project for you. Take a moment to explore these databases and see if there are any projects that match your interests.
fstop123/E+/Getty Images Bird-watching citizen science programs, like the Great Backyard Bird Count, give everyday people a chance to get involved and provide scientists with access to massive amounts of data.
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Section 10.3 Modern Approaches
10.3 Modern Approaches
Modern environmentalists have some incredible resources at their disposal, but even the best tools can go to waste if we do not use them properly. This section will introduce three envi- ronmentalists who achieved important environmental victories and developed new ways of problem solving in a globalized and modern world. They provide examples of how we can approach the kinds of wicked problems that have eluded past environmental efforts. By look- ing closely at what they did and how they did it, we will identify some effective strategies on which to build in the next environmental movement.
Ray C. Anderson and Better Business Our first environmental figure comes from what may seem like an unlikely place: the carpet industry. In the early 1970s Ray C. Anderson was the young CEO of a carpet company that would eventually come to be known as Interface Inc. In many ways, he was already an innova- tor. The company was an early adopter of modular carpet squares that allowed for cheaper and easier installations. Because individual squares of carpet could be replaced (as opposed to entire carpet rolls), the technology was also effective at reducing waste. However, the industry was still not sustainable by any measure. Carpet production required the creation of adhesives and other harmful chemicals with large environmental footprints. The company also operated with a linear manufacturing process that relied on the extraction of raw materi- als at the beginning of a carpet’s life cycle and the landfilling of all materials at the end.
With this business model, the company grew steadily, but everything changed in the mid- 1990s when a customer challenged Anderson over his company’s environmental practices. After some soul-searching, Anderson experienced what he referred to as his “spear in the chest” (Interface, n.d., para. 3) moment, and he concluded that he and his investors were ben- efiting from the unsustainable exploitation of the environment.
In the years following, Anderson would go on to reinvent his company with a series of reforms that were nothing short of radical for a modern CEO beholden to investors. The company began its Mission Zero cam- paign to eliminate all negative environ- mental consequences of its operations by the year 2020, and Anderson committed resources to develop better manufactur- ing processes. The company found ways to reduce the amount of material required to make carpet, and it developed new floor- ing adhesives with dramatically smaller environmental footprints. Interface also looked to nature for inspiration. New car- pet designs were modeled after patterns in nature in order to make tiles more inter- changeable. By creating tiles that could be
tun723/iStock/Getty Images Plus Carpet squares were a helpful environmental concept that allowed for reduced waste in the carpet industry. Ray C. Anderson took this to the next level by completely revolutionizing the manufacturing process.
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Section 10.3 Modern Approaches
laid out in any order, the company was able to reduce installation waste. The company also developed a closed-loop manufacturing process that mimicked material flows in nature. Old carpet and other forms of waste were processed and recycled to make new carpet.
Even though Anderson passed away in 2011, Interface has continued to pursue his environ- mental goals for the company. In 2012 Interface introduced its Net-Works program that recy- cles discarded fishing nets into carpet materials to further reduce the need for raw materials and to reduce pollution from discarded nets. In 2017 Interface created the Proof Positive carpet tile that actually removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere with its manufactur- ing process.
Throughout Anderson’s career, Interface continued to be an industry leader. Its environmen- tal practices reduced costs, and its reputation as an ethical organization increased its stand- ing with customers. This new, green business model has since been replicated in a variety of other industries. The personal computer giant Dell has followed the Interface example by dra- matically reducing the waste and energy use of its computer manufacturing processes. The New Belgium Brewing Company in Colorado has created its own closed-loop systems that convert spent hops and grain from the brewing process into biogas that powers the opera- tion. Seventh Generation has developed new, biodegradable cleaning products that are less harmful to the environment than conventional products. Patagonia uses a portion of its prof- its to fund research and environmental restoration efforts in South America.
Some companies are even taking a more holistic approach to sustainability by developing business models that also address social concerns. The Evergreen Cooperatives, a group of worker-owned businesses in Cleveland, comprise several environmentally friendly ventures, including a solar installation business, an eco-friendly laundromat, and an urban greenhouse operation for local food production. These businesses are located in low-income neighbor- hoods, where residents are trained to manage and run the businesses. This model allows profits to stay in local communities, where they can improve the lives of residents. The Ever- green Cooperatives demonstrate how all three pillars of sustainability (economic, social, and environmental) can come together to make communities stronger.
The success of Interface, Evergreen, and the other businesses listed above suggests that the demand for sustainable products is growing. However, this also means that companies are incentivized to make their products sound “greener” than they actually are. This trend of greenwashing undermines the efforts of truly sustainable businesses and harms the repu- tations of companies accused of making misleading claims. For example, cleaning supplies company S. C. Johnson was accused of false advertising when customers confused its self- administered “Greenlist” certification with a neutral, third-party certification (Lane, 2009). Honda lost a small claims lawsuit alleging that it misrepresented the fuel economy of its 2006 Civic Hybrid model (Terry, 2012). In a more recent example, Starbucks introduced a straw-less lid in 2018 to reduce plastic pollution, but the change caused a public backlash when it was revealed that the new lid contained more plastic than the lid system it replaced (Mahdawi, 2018). As these examples demonstrate, greenwashing efforts can be undermined when custom- ers make informed decisions. Savvy shoppers can research products online and look for prod- ucts that are backed up by well-known third-party certifications. Serious cases of greenwashing can also be reported to the Better Business Bureau and the Federal Trade Commission.
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Section 10.3 Modern Approaches
Jaime Lerner and Green Urban Planning Like Ray C. Anderson, our next environmental figure was committed to protecting the envi- ronment while trying to meet social needs. Jaime Lerner was born in the state of Paraná in southern Brazil. As a student in the 1960s, Lerner studied architecture, and after graduating from the Federal University of Paraná, he helped start an urban planning institute in the city of Curitiba. Urban planning refers to the process of designing cities and other urban areas. When Lerner moved to Curitiba, the city was struggling to cope with a growing population and high levels of poverty. The city was characterized by traffic and litter that overwhelmed its transportation and waste systems. As an urban planner, Lerner had worked on propos- als to help improve city conditions, and after a military coup in the late 1960s, Lerner was appointed as the city’s mayor in 1971.
As mayor during the 1970s and 1980s, Lerner was a controversial figure. He was not transparent or even democratic, and he was known to undermine normal bureau- cratic processes in order to accomplish his goals. That being said, he was a forward thinker, and he approached Curitiba’s prob- lems holistically. His first major project was to create a pedestrian mall that reduced traffic congestion and supported local businesses. He then went on to develop the public bus system, which incorporated extra-long buses, subway-like loading plat- forms, and express lanes on the highway. The innovative transportation system was environmentally friendly, inexpensive, and widely utilized. To deal with waste, Lerner implemented a tokens-for-trash recycling program that recycled more than 70% of the city’s waste and had the participation of more than 90% of households. Finally, Lerner invested heavily in green space initiatives that promoted wildlife and provided recreation for citizens. In the 1970s and 1980s, systems like these were edgy and innovative. More impor- tantly, they made life better for Curitiba citizens.
Learn More: Ray C. Anderson
In this TED Talk, Ray C. Anderson talks about the “business logic of sustainability.”
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iP9QF_lBOyA
pabst_ell/iStock/Getty Images Plus Parque Barigui, one of the green spaces Jaime Lerner helped create in Curitiba, Brazil. Parque Barigui is one of the oldest and largest parks in the city, and it has helped preserve some of the region’s native forest and provides a free-range habitat for several native animal species.
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Section 10.3 Modern Approaches
As one of the earliest and most ambitious examples of green urban planning, Curitiba showed that environmentally friendly cities are also places where people and businesses want to be located. Cities all over the world have since followed Curitiba’s example. Copenhagen plans to become the world’s first carbon-neutral capital by the year 2025. Amsterdam has more bicycles than people in its city limits, and Stockholm, Sweden, has a sewage system that turns human waste into transportation fuels. American cities are getting in on the action as well. Chicago has created a permanent green belt around the metropolitan area and more than 232,260 square meters (2.5 million square feet) of green rooftops that support plant life. Seattle has more than 20 public buildings that are certified by the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design program, and Portland, Oregon, is one of the most bikeable cities in the United States, with over 320 kilometers (200 miles) of dedicated bike lanes.
Cities like these are some of the best tools we have for enacting real environmental change because they impact a tremendous number of people. Today the majority of the world’s population is located in cities, and more people are expected to move to cities over time. In recent years, city leaders are also finding innovative ways to coordinate efforts on global environmental challenges. ICLEI is an international network of local and regional govern- ments that are committed to sustainable urban development. Members of ICLEI set goals and share resources so that they can help each other become more sustainable over time. The Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy and C40 are international networks of city leaders who are coordinating actions to address climate change. When the United States withdrew from the Paris Agreement, dozens of U.S. cities signed the Chicago Climate Charter and committed to doing their part to reduce national greenhouse gas emissions. In all of these examples, sustainable cities are demonstrating that national leadership is not the only avenue for global environmental change.
Learn More: Jaime Lerner
In this TED Talk about sustainable cities, Jaime Lerner talks about how he reinvented urban space in Curitiba, Brazil.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=haKh9mCk3xk
Wangari Maathai and Sustainable Development Our last environmental figure is Wangari Maathai, who found innovative ways to fight pov- erty by addressing environmental problems. Maathai was born in rural Kenya in 1940, and she would grow up to become a pioneer in a variety of ways. She was the first woman in East and Central Africa to earn a doctoral degree when she studied veterinary anatomy at the Uni- versity of Nairobi, and in the late 1970s she became the first female to hold several academic positions at that same institution. It was around this time that Maathai also became active in the National Council of Women of Kenya and noticed that rural communities were navigat- ing a variety of difficult challenges that were connected to environmental degradation and deforestation. Communities lacked wood for fuel and home repairs. Streams dried up without vegetation in the soil to retain water, and food became scarce as productive soils eroded away. All of these factors contributed to increasing poverty, particularly for women.
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Section 10.3 Modern Approaches
To address these challenges, Maathai started a program called the Green Belt Movement, which paid rural women to maintain plant nurseries and replant the Kenyan countryside. As the Green Belt Movement grew and forests recovered, communi- ties learned to harvest materials sustainably for income generation. In the process, the organiza- tion improved lives and eased poverty in thou- sands of rural communities. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the Green Belt Movement expanded its efforts to develop educational programming on environmental issues. It also began organizing political efforts to elevate the voices of women and rural voters in Kenya’s political system. Maathai became a well-known political activist who consis- tently advocated for democracy, human rights, and environmental restoration despite regular death threats, physical attacks, and arrests by the Kenyan government. In 2002 she was elected to parliament in Kenya, where she furthered her environmental and social causes. In 2004 she became the first Afri- can woman to win a Nobel Prize for her contribu- tions to sustainable development and democracy.
Maathai’s work demonstrated the deep connections that exist between some of our most pressing social and environmental needs. With the success of ini-
tiatives like the Green Belt Movement, organizations all over the world have been encour- aged to talk about sustainability and development in more integrated ways. One of the most notable examples of this is the United Nations. In 2015 the UN adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which lays out the organization’s road map for global sustainabil- ity. The plan can be summarized by its 17 organizing goals, called UN Sustainable Develop- ment Goals (UNSDGs):
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Visions of America/SuperStock Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement, which promoted reforestation and sustainability throughout Kenya.
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Section 10.3 Modern Approaches
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015)
Together, the UNSDGs paint one of the most ambitious and extensive visions of global sus- tainability yet. According to the UN’s own language, “ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequal- ity, and spur economic growth—all while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests” (United Nations, n.d.b, para. 1). These sentiments echo the work of Maathai and other pioneers who have broken down disciplinary boundaries and developed holistic approaches to social and environmental problems. They also challenge the entire world to address environmental issues in more comprehensive ways.
Incorporating New Approaches Our three environmental figures provide very different stories, but there are similarities that provide lessons for future environmental efforts. All three environmentalists addressed entire systems rather than just the symptoms of larger problems. Ray C. Anderson studied the complex manufacturing steps and supply chains that determined his company’s environ- mental impact. He was then able to build a new system based on efficiency, reuse, and recy- cling. Jaime Lerner developed new waste and transportation systems to improve conditions in Curitiba. To do this, he had to understand how all of the city’s systems worked together and impacted the numerous dimensions of city life. Wangari Maathai was able to use her under- standings of ecological and economic systems to develop interventions that addressed both. Understanding complex systems is a critical component of future environmental progress. If we can understand how wicked problems are embedded in society and the environment, we can find the leverage points that create change and avoid unforeseen consequences.
Our environmental innovators also considered more than just the environmental dimensions of sustainability. Anderson had to create an environmental business model that was also eco- nomically viable. Otherwise, his efforts would have had little effect on the environment or the corporate world. Similarly, Curitiba never could have helped the environment if the city did not also work well for its people. Lerner had to consider his social and environmental goals together. Maathai’s work saved the environment while also redistributing power and lifting communities out of poverty. In the next environmental movement, we cannot only think about the environment or the economy. Everything is connected in more ways than we realize, and the best solutions consider all the human and environmental dimensions of sustainability.
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Section 10.4 Case Study: Building the Next Movement in Meadville, Pennsylvania
10.4 Case Study: Building the Next Movement in Meadville, Pennsylvania
If we review the many examples that were explored in this chapter, we can begin to paint a picture of the next environmental movement. Past environmental efforts highlight the need to tackle wicked problems using the best tools at our disposal. We must continue to develop better understandings of social and environmental systems so that we can address complex environmental challenges. In addition to local actions, we need to coordinate international efforts that address global problems. To do this, we might build on the collaborative models of problem solving provided by citizen science and international organizations like the UN. We must also invest our formidable resources into long-term solutions that do not shift envi- ronmental burdens onto vulnerable populations or future generations. Along these lines, we need to follow the examples of our three environmental figures in Section 10.3 and develop new economic and social systems that consider several dimensions of social well-being and sustainability.
Most importantly, the next environmental movement must bring people together. Past suc- cesses were built on cooperation, and more than ever, we need to frame challenges so that they resonate with the entire political spectrum. A sustainable future for our planet and for our people is something that everyone can get behind if we can communicate respectfully with those who are different from us. All of this begs the question: What will your role be in the next environmental movement?
This section describes how one community (in the authors’ hometown) has come together and is tackling environmental problems in exciting and approachable ways. As you read, notice the impact of small everyday actions, and consider the ways that you might contribute. As you will learn, you do not have to be a politician or an entrepreneur to make important environmental contributions. The next environmental movement will be made up of efforts large and small that will work together to transform the world we live in.
Tool City The city of Meadville was founded in the northwestern corner of Pennsylvania along the French Creek waterway. Despite its name, French Creek is much more of a river than a creek, and it provided an important trading route between Lake Erie and the Ohio River in the 18th century. It was also teeming with wildlife. Today French Creek still supports several endan- gered species and is considered one of the most biologically diverse waterways in the United States.
With its proximity to energy and water resources, Meadville eventually became a hub for industry and manufacturing. The town helped develop the zipper in the late 1800s and became a thriving textile producer. Meadville also hosted several tool manufacturers, earning it the nickname “Tool City USA.” Business was good for much of the 20th century. So good, in fact, that the city added jobs and experienced a population boom during the Great Depression.
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Section 10.4 Case Study: Building the Next Movement in Meadville, Pennsylvania
Unfortunately, Meadville encountered significant challenges beginning in the 1980s. Industry declined throughout the Great Lakes region, and several companies went out of business or relocated closer to cheaper labor. By the 1990s the population had shrunk and poverty levels grew to twice that of the national average. Local waterways were also diminished by develop- ment, aging sewage infrastructure, and decades of pollution from industry and agriculture.
Meadville Citizens Today Meadville has a population of 13,000, and life is steadily improving due to the hard work of its citizens. Nonprofits are restoring and protecting French Creek. Citizens are orga- nizing around a variety of community development efforts, and small businesses are revital- izing Meadville’s downtown.
Promoting Energy Efficiency Lisbet Searle-White spent years inspecting homes with poor insulation and inefficient appli- ances for her work with local utilities, and she has seen how poorly maintained buildings can hurt finances as well as the environment. Recently, she decided that she wanted to do more for Meadville’s low-income renters, so she teamed up with a housing nonprofit and began developing educational resources for staff and residents. Over the past year, she has helped the organization analyze energy bills and reduce energy consumption at several properties. She is also providing information sessions on home energy efficiency and renters’ rights to residents. Through this volunteer work, Searle-White is helping several families reduce their environmental impact and find more financial stability.
Improving Food Systems Taylor Hinton, an educator, and Kerstin Martin Ams, a garden manager, have been working together to improve Meadville’s food systems. In the past few years, the duo has worked with college students and Meadville’s Market Authority to create a mobile market and a food hub that make local produce more accessible to the Meadville community. Hinton and Ams have also worked with local neighborhoods to build several community gardens around town.
Now these gardens are supporting pollina- tors and producing local food for Meadville community members.
Preserving Local Waterways Wendy Kedzierski has built much of her life around the preservation of French Creek. She heads an educational organiza- tion called Creek Connections that uses local waterways to educate K–12 students. As part of this program, students monitor local water quality and publish their results
Photo courtesy William Owen One of Meadville’s community gardens.
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Section 10.4 Case Study: Building the Next Movement in Meadville, Pennsylvania
online. In her free time, Kedzierski volunteers with the French Creek Conservancy, which pur- chases and protects land along French Creek and hosts annual events to remove trash from the watershed.
Engaging With City Government For Autumn Vogel, city government is the preferred tool for environmental change. Vogel is running for city council after years of supporting sustainable community development efforts as a volunteer and as a city employee. As part of her agenda, she hopes to change zoning rules that impede urban farming, sustainable housing, and conservation efforts like some of those mentioned above. She also wants the city to invest in public spaces to improve health and build community.
Living Sustainably Benjamin Haywood and Matthew Bethurem are professors who teach sustainability and also try to incorporate it into their everyday lives. Haywood volunteers his free time at a local wildlife rehabilitation center, while Bethurem has done everything he can think of to live a sustainable lifestyle. He wears natural fibers to avoid creating microfiber pollution, and he eats a vegan diet to minimize his greenhouse gas emissions. He also drives a fuel-efficient car, purchases locally made goods, and recycles religiously.
Community Organizing James Magee does not have any formal training in environmental problem solving, but that has not stopped him from being an active environmentalist. He regularly initiates projects that address environmental health and economic development in the Meadville community. In recent years, Magee has organized tree plantings, raised money for a neighbor’s solar panel installation, and started a community-wide composting operation.
Selling Green Julie McClymonds realized that she could make a difference by providing the Mead- ville community with more environmentally friendly products, so she opened her Green Shoppe in downtown Meadville. The small storefront carries environmentally friendly cleaning products, reusable packaging solu- tions, and a variety of locally made artisan goods. The Green Shoppe also offers a vari- ety of educational workshops to encourage more sustainable lifestyles. Recent events have focused on herbalism, nutrition, cook- ing, and sustainable arts and crafts.
Photo courtesy William Owen The Green Shoppe in downtown Meadville carries environmentally friendly products.
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Bringing It All Together
Working Together It may appear that these Meadville citizens are working alone, but the truth is that these efforts would not be possible if they were not supported by the larger community. Wendy Kedzierski is a fixture at one of the community gardens created by Taylor Hinton and Kerstin Martin Ams. Matthew Bethurem is volunteering with Autumn Vogel’s city council campaign, and many of these individuals support the Green Shoppe. Meadville citizens are doing a great job of working together to create positive change.
Small Is Big The examples in this section may seem small in comparison to some of the other environmen- tal achievements presented in this chapter. However, it would be hard to overestimate the importance of these actions. Meadville residents are normal people who are coming together to improve food, energy, and political systems. They do this without government agencies or financial backing from investors, and most of them do this work during their free time at personal expense. The fact that Meadville residents are transforming their town with small actions is what really makes this example inspirational. Communities like Meadville are show- ing that a grassroots sustainability movement is already on its way, and if you look closely, you might find that the movement is in your hometown as well.
Bringing It All Together
Let us close with one last story to help you prepare for your role in the next environmental movement. The story is a Native American fable that was often told by Wangari Maathai before she died in 2011. The story goes as follows (or you can watch or listen to Matthai tell the story in this YouTube video):
One day a terrible fire broke out in a forest—a huge woodlands was suddenly engulfed by a raging wildfire. Frightened, all the animals fled their homes and ran out of the forest. As they came to the edge of a stream they stopped to watch the fire, and they were feeling very discouraged and powerless. They were all bemoaning the destruction of their homes. Every one of them thought there was nothing they could do about the fire, except for one little hummingbird.
This particular hummingbird decided it would do something. It swooped into the stream and picked up a few drops of water and went into the forest and put them on the fire. Then it went back to the stream and did it again, and it kept going back, again and again and again. All the other animals watched in disbelief; some tried to discourage the hummingbird with comments like, “Don’t bother, it is too much, you are too little, your wings will burn, your beak is too tiny, it’s only a drop, you can’t put out this fire.”
And as the animals stood around disparaging the little bird’s efforts, the bird noticed how hopeless and forlorn they looked. Then one of the animals shouted out and challenged the hummingbird in a mocking voice, “What do you think you are doing?” And the hummingbird, without wasting time or losing a beat, looked back and said, “I am doing what I can.”
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Bringing It All Together
Many of us who are concerned about the future of our planet can empathize with the crea- tures in this story. The challenges we face are enormous, and there is no guarantee that things will turn out OK. This has led many to disengage from the harsh realities that we are facing. The story of the hummingbird provides us with a different perspective that can help us as we navigate an uncertain future. No matter how big the challenges are, we can always make the choice to be courageous and work toward a future that we believe in. The inten- tions behind our actions are truly powerful. They can give our lives meaning and purpose, and when they inspire others, they can change the world. As you go forward, find the ways that you can help build the next environmental movement. Most importantly, be a humming- bird, and discover the rewards of doing the best that you can.
Additional Resources
John Muir
A short biography of transcendentalist writer John Muir can be found here.
http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/people/historical/muir
U.S. National Parks
This article describes the relationships between railroads and specific national parks.
https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/nps/railroads.pdf
This PBS website describes the history of our national parks system. PBS members can watch the film The National Parks: America’s Best Idea by Ken Burns.
http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/history/ep3/3
Modern Environmental Movement
A detailed discussion of the modern environmental movement can be found in this Univer- sity of Michigan resource.
http://michiganintheworld.history.lsa.umich.edu/environmentalism/exhibits/show /main_exhibit/origins/-environmental-crisis–in-the-
Citizen Science
A summary of opportunities and challenges in citizen science research can be found in this Nature article.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07106-5
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
The UNSDGs are described in greater detail on the UN website.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300
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http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/people/historical/muir
https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/nps/railroads.pdf
http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/history/ep3/3
http://michiganintheworld.history.lsa.umich.edu/environmentalism/exhibits/show/main_exhibit/origins/-environmental-crisis–in-the-
http://michiganintheworld.history.lsa.umich.edu/environmentalism/exhibits/show/main_exhibit/origins/-environmental-crisis–in-the-
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07106-5
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300
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Green Belt Movement
The Green Belt Movement website provides a history of the organization as well as descrip- tions of current initiatives.
http://www.greenbeltmovement.org
Key Terms American conservation movement Between roughly 1850 and 1920, a campaign to respond to new environmental challenges that arose out of the Industrial Revolution. Also known as the conservation movement.
citizen science Scientific research that pairs volunteers with professional scientists.
greenwashing The practice of making misleading claims about the environmental benefits of a product.
modern environmental movement A campaign during the 1960s and 1970s to respond to environmental challenges arising out of post–World War II growth and consumption patterns.
urban planning The interdisciplinary process of designing cities and other urban areas.
wicked problems Societal challenges that are complex, global, and/or remote in nature.
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http://www.greenbeltmovement.org
